Chapter VII

Darwin sets out on an excursion from Buenos Ayres to St. Fe, about 300 miles north on the Parana River. He describes the difficult road conditions and the wagons used for travel in the region.

Darwin observes extensive thistle beds covering the plains, which grow impenetrably thick and provide refuge for robbers. The presence of thistles inversely correlates with bandit activity in the region.

Darwin defines the bizcacha as a prominent feature of Pampas zoology, found south to latitude 41°, but stopped by the Uruguay River despite appearing suitable habitat across it.

Darwin describes the bizcacha's evening emergence, tameness, awkward running gait, and white edible flesh, as well as Gaucho beliefs about its root-eating diet.

Darwin documents the remarkable habit of bizcachas dragging hard objects to their burrows, including bones, stones, and other debris, with the illustrative example of a recovered watch.

Darwin draws a parallel to the Australian Calodera maculata, which similarly collects shells, bones, and feathers, though he acknowledges the ultimate purpose of such behavior remains unclear.

Darwin notes that the little owl (Athene cunicularia) inhabits bizcacha holes on the Buenos Ayres plains but excavates its own burrows in Banda Oriental.

Darwin describes the little owl's daytime and evening activity near burrows, its shrill cry, undulatory flight, and varied diet of mice and snakes, with comparative examples from other regions.

Darwin crosses the Rio Arrecife by raft and reflects on travel distances, noting that 31 leagues equals about 76 miles despite Captain Head's accounts of 50-league days.

Darwin describes the Parana as a broad, island-dotted river with picturesque red cliffs, deriving its grandeur from its role as a crucial communication and commerce route between nations.

Darwin argues that claims about the Pampas' extreme flatness are not exaggerated but demonstrates through geometric observation that the plain possesses subtle inequality.

Darwin finds two immense mastodon skeletons projecting from the Parana cliffs, along with fossils of Toxodon and a horse tooth, confirming extinct megafauna in South America.

The boatmen theorize that mastodons, like bizcachas, were formerly burrowing animals, revealing how communities construct explanations for puzzling geological evidence.

Darwin notes that only three degrees of latitude from Buenos Ayres to St. Fe produces marked changes in dress, vegetation, and especially in bird species despite no natural boundary.

Darwin describes bizarre healing practices used by locals during his illness, including bean and plaster patches on temples and the use of hairless dogs for invalids.

Darwin observes that St. Fe's stable government under Governor Lopez is maintained through tyranny, which he judges better suited to these countries than republicanism.

Darwin reports that Governor Lopez's favorite occupation is hunting Indigenous peoples, having recently killed forty-eight and sold children as slaves.

Darwin notes that St. Fe Bajada, capital of Entre Rios, despite having few inhabitants, has suffered severely from revolutionary conflicts, attributing this to the burdens of formal government structures.

Darwin predicts that Entre Rios will become one of the richest countries of La Plata due to its productive soil and strategic river communication lines.

Darwin describes a vertical geological section showing transition from marine deposits (shark teeth, shells) through marl to terrestrial Pampas deposits with quadruped bones, indicating environmental change.

Darwin cites alternating Pampaean and limestone beds at Punta Gorda as evidence of either current changes or oscillating sea levels in ancient estuaries.

Professor Ehrenberg's microscopic analysis of red earth from the Pampaean deposit reveals mixed salt- and fresh-water infusoria, confirming that the ancient water was brackish rather than purely marine.

Darwin reports d'Orbigny's findings of estuary shells now living 100 miles seaward, found at elevated positions on the Parana, supporting the theory of post-elevation brackish conditions.

Darwin finds an armadillo-like animal's armor, Toxodon and Mastodon teeth, and notably a horse tooth in the same stained state, all in the Pampaean deposit.

Darwin emphasizes his careful verification that the horse tooth was contemporaneous with other remains, noting this was groundbreaking as horse fossils in America were then uncertain.

Darwin reports that Professor Owen identified a distinctive curvature in the American fossil horse, which Darwin's specimen exemplified, leading to its naming as Equus curvidens.

Darwin reflects on the remarkable fact that native South American horses lived and disappeared, only to be succeeded by countless herds descended from Spanish colonial introductions.

Darwin catalogs South American fossil finds (horse, mastodon, possibly elephant, hollow-horned ruminants) and contrasts them with current zoological distribution patterns across the continent.

Darwin proposes dividing the Americas at latitude 20° Mexico rather than the Isthmus of Panama, showing how the Mexican plateau forms a barrier creating two distinct zoological regions.

Darwin lists South America's distinctive living animals: gnawers, monkeys, llama, peccari, tapir, opossums, and various Edentata (sloths, ant-eaters, armadillos).

Darwin identifies North America's distinctive living animals as peculiar gnawers and four genera of hollow-horned ruminants (ox, sheep, goat, antelope), absent in South America.

Darwin demonstrates that within the recent geological period, both North and South America possessed elephant, mastodon, horse, and Edentata genera (Megatherium, Megalonyx, Mylodon).

Darwin argues that the shared fossil genera between North and South America indicate they were more closely related biogeographically in recent geological times than they are now.

Darwin claims this case is unique in geology: the ability to almost mark the period and manner of one great region splitting into two well-characterized zoological provinces.

Darwin speculates that recent elevation of the Mexican platform or submergence in the West Indies may explain the current zoological separation of North and South America.

Darwin infers from South American mammalian characteristics in West Indian fossils that the archipelago was formerly united to South America and has since undergone subsidence.

Darwin argues that when America possessed elephants, mastodons, and horses, it was more closely related zoologically to temperate Eurasia than it is now.

Darwin proposes that Bering Strait was formerly land, serving as the communication point between Old and New Worlds for elephant, mastodon, horse, and ruminant migration.

Darwin theorizes that North American elephants, mastodons, horses, and ruminants migrated from Siberia across submerged land near Bering Strait, then into South America via the West Indies.

Darwin recounts vivid descriptions of the 'gran seco' drought period when rain failed, vegetation died, and countless animals perished from hunger and thirst.

Darwin describes how thistles and other plants failed, brooks dried up, and the landscape became barren like a dusty road during the great drought.

Darwin reports that birds, wild animals, cattle, and horses perished by the millions, with one property losing all 20,000 cattle and deer being driven to wells for water.

Darwin cites the minimum estimate of one million head of cattle lost in Buenos Ayres province alone during the drought.

Darwin describes how animals abandoned their estancias and wandered south, becoming mixed in multitudes, requiring government intervention to settle ownership disputes.

Darwin reports that prolonged dryness caused such extensive dust that property boundaries and landmarks became obliterated, creating additional legal disputes.

Darwin documents how exhausted herds of thousands rushed into the Parana River and, unable to climb muddy banks, drowned, filling the river with putrid carcasses.

Darwin notes that small rivers became saline during the drought, causing death in concentrated areas since animals drinking such water do not recover.

Darwin cites Azara's description of wild horses rushing into marshes during drought, with those arriving first being crushed by followers, with over a thousand destroyed.

Darwin notes that smaller Pampas streams were paved with bone breccia, likely from gradual accumulation rather than a single catastrophic event.

Darwin notes that a rainy season following the drought caused floods, likely burying thousands of skeletons within the next year.

Darwin poses a rhetorical question about how a geologist observing such enormous collections of mixed animal bones would interpret them, suggesting attribution to catastrophic flooding rather than normal processes.

Darwin returns to Buenos Ayres by one-masted vessel due to illness, mooring early on islands due to unfair weather.

Darwin describes how islands constantly form and decay, composed of muddy sand and densely covered with willows and jungle growth, providing refuge for capybaras and jaguars.

Darwin's exploration is curtailed by indubitable signs of jaguar presence; every island shows tracks, making traversal dangerous.

Darwin notes that jaguars favor wooded riverbanks and apparently require water proximity, with south of Plata populations frequenting reed-bordered lakes.

Darwin reports that capybaras are the jaguar's common prey, with a saying that abundant capybaras indicate less jaguar danger.

Darwin cites Falconer's report of jaguars near Plata mouth living mainly on fish, a claim Darwin has heard repeated.

Darwin documents jaguar attacks on wood-cutters and vessel crews, including one man who escaped with the loss of arm use after being seized on deck.

Darwin notes that jaguars become most dangerous when floods drive them from islands, though they also devastate cattle and horses at such times.

Darwin reports that jaguars kill prey by breaking necks, and if driven from the carcass, seldom return to it.

Darwin notes that Gauchos claim jaguars are tormented by yelping foxes at night, drawing a parallel to jackals following East Indian tigers.

Darwin notes that jaguars are noisy, roaring much at night, especially before bad weather.

Darwin describes jaguars' habit of repeatedly using specific trees to sharpen claws, with visible worn bark and deep scratches from different time periods.

Darwin notes that examining these specific trees is a common method for determining jaguar presence in the neighborhood.

Darwin compares jaguar claw-sharpening to common household cat behavior, suggesting the purpose is to tear off ragged claw points rather than sharpen them, contrary to Gaucho belief.

Darwin reports seeing deep puma scratches on Patagonia's hard soil, suggesting this behavior is common to pumas as well.

Darwin notes that jaguars are killed without much difficulty using dogs to bay and drive them up trees, where they are shot.

Darwin and crew pass time catching fish during a two-day weather delay, finding several good-eating species.

Darwin describes the armado (Silurus) fish's remarkable ability to produce harsh grating sounds when hooked and to grip objects firmly with spinal fins.

Darwin notes tropical temperatures (79°F), abundant fireflies, and troublesome mosquitoes, with fifty covering his hand in five minutes.

Darwin encounters the extraordinary scissor-beak (Rhynchops nigra) with its unique flattened beak, lower mandible projecting an inch and a half longer than the upper.

Darwin describes the scissor-beak's laterally flattened beak as flat and elastic as an ivory paper-cutter, with unique anatomical structure among birds.

Darwin observes scissor-beaks in flocks skimming lake surfaces with bills open and lower mandible half-buried, ploughing furrows and catching small fish with scissor-like bills.

Darwin notes the birds' rapid backwards and forwards flight with extreme quickness, dexterous lower mandible management for fish capture, and wing feather utility in keeping dry.

Darwin notes that when fishing, scissor-beaks resemble the artistic symbol many use to represent marine birds.

Darwin observes that scissor-beaks use their tails extensively for steering their irregular courses.

Darwin reports that scissor-beaks are common far inland along the Rio Parana, remain year-round, and breed in marshes.

Darwin notes that scissor-beaks rest in flocks on grassy plains during the day, away from water.

Darwin suspects that scissor-beaks fish primarily at night when lower animals rise to the surface, based on observations of evening activity and daytime ground-resting.

Darwin cites M. Lesson's claim that scissor-beaks open mactrae shells on Chilean sand-banks, though he deems this improbable given their weak bills and short legs.

Darwin describes a small kingfisher (Ceryle Americana) with a longer tail than European species, weak undulatory flight, and clicking vocalizations.

Darwin describes a small green parrot (Conurus murinus) that places nests so close together they form one mass of sticks on island trees.

Darwin notes that these parrots live in flocks and cause great damage to corn-fields, with 2500 killed in one year near Colonia.

Darwin describes the scissor-tail (Tyrannus savana) with forked tail tipped by long feathers, commonly sitting on ombu trees and making short insect-hunting flights.

Darwin notes the scissor-tail's flight manner and appearance present a caricature-likeness of common swallows.

Darwin describes the scissor-tail's power to turn sharply in air, opening and shutting its tail in horizontal, lateral, or vertical directions like scissors.

Darwin notes that perpendicular cliffs along the Parana's western shore below Rozario make the river resemble a seacoast rather than a fresh-water river.

Darwin observes that the muddy Parana contrasts with the clear Uruguay due to granitic geology, with distinctly different water colors where they meet.

Darwin describes the balandra master's extreme indolence, mooring at slight weather concerns despite favorable currents, though bearing delays with resignation.

Darwin notes the Spanish master preferred his countrymen be thought treacherous rather than cowardly, stoutly maintaining Spanish captains were bought at Trafalgar.

Darwin reflects that it is characteristic this Spaniard would prefer his countrymen thought treacherous rather than militarily unskilled or cowardly.

Darwin regrets that the grand Parana, with its potential to connect temperate and tropical regions, is underutilized as a commercial channel compared to what English colonization might have achieved.

Darwin notes that while Francia rules Paraguay as dictator, these regions remain separate as if on opposite sides of the globe, preventing unified development.

Darwin predicts that upon Francia's death, Paraguay will be torn by violent revolutions proportional to the previous unnatural calm.

Darwin argues that South American republics cannot succeed until they contain sufficient men imbued with principles of justice and honor.

Darwin arrives at the Parana mouth to discover a violent revolution has begun, with all ports under embargo and the capital blockaded.

Darwin finds himself unable to return to his vessel or proceed by land due to the revolution, effectively becoming a prisoner despite not being formally detained.

After conversation with the commandant, Darwin obtains permission to seek General Rolor, who commands rebel forces near the capital.

Darwin describes the general, officers, and soldiers as appearing to be great villains, undermining his credibility despite pledging loyalty to the governor the evening before.

Darwin notes that the general solemnly pledged his honor to the governor the evening before abandoning the city, demonstrating cynical betrayal.

The general informs Darwin that the city is under close blockade and provides him a passport to the rebel commander-in-chief at Quilmes.

Darwin mentions General Rosas's previous kindness, which instantly transforms the rebels' response from denial to allowing passage without a formal passport.

Darwin abandons his guide and horses, proceeds past rebel sentinels, and successfully enters Buenos Ayres despite the blockade through casual military checks.

Darwin observes that this revolution had scarcely any legitimate pretext, occurring in a state with fifteen government changes in nine months.

Darwin describes how seventy men attached to Rosas, disgusted with governor Balcarce, left the city, triggering the uprising through the rallying cry of Rosas's name.

Darwin notes that the rebels prevented provisions, cattle, and horses from entering the city, knowing this strategy would ensure their victory despite minimal skirmishing.

Darwin speculates that while Rosas likely did not know of the uprising, it seems consonant with his political faction's plans.

Darwin explains that Rosas, having been elected governor but requesting extraordinary powers (refused), used his faction to demonstrate that no other governor could maintain power.

Darwin reports that warfare was deliberately protracted on both sides until word could be received from Rosas, showing his faction's control.

Darwin describes a message from Rosas disapproving of the broken peace but claiming the outside rebels had justice on their side.

Upon receiving Rosas's message, the governor, ministers, and military fled the city, allowing rebels to enter, establish new governance, and distribute pay to 5500 men.

Darwin concludes from these proceedings that Rosas must ultimately become dictator, with people preferring 'dictator' to 'king' as terminology.

Darwin reports that after leaving South America, news came that Rosas had been elected with powers and duration opposed to constitutional republican principles.