Lives of the Poets

The translator explains that this work comprises Suetonius's biographies of twelve Roman emperors from Julius Caesar through Domitian, organized by individual character and personal conduct rather than military exploits.

The text indicates a separate division devoted to biographical accounts of celebrated Roman poets including Terence, Juvenal, Persius, Horace, Lucan, and Pliny the Elder.

Julius Caesar lost his father at sixteen and was thereafter nominated to the office of high-priest of Jupiter, which prompted him to repudiate a wealthy fiancée to marry Cornelia instead.

After Caesar's mother pleads with Sylla to pardon her son, Sylla grants it but makes a prophetic remark that Caesar will one day be the ruin of the patrician party, comparing him to many Marius figures.

Caesar served on the staff of the praetor M. Thermus in Asia and Bithynia, where he lingered at the court of Nicomedes and gained a civic crown for his role in the siege of Mitylene.

After brief service in Cilicia under Servilius Isauricus, Caesar returned to Rome upon hearing of Sylla's death, hoping to capitalize on the ensuing civil disturbance but ultimately abandoning those plans.

Caesar prosecuted the consular Cornelius Dolabella for extortion; after Dolabella's acquittal, Caesar resolved to retire to Rhodes to study rhetoric with Apollonius, but was captured by pirates en route.

Captured by pirates near Pharmacusa for nearly forty days, Caesar arranged his ransom, then pursued and captured the pirates, executing them as he had previously threatened in jest.

Upon his return to Rome, Caesar was elected military tribune and worked to restore the tribunitian authority that had been diminished under Sylla, supporting laws to recall political exiles.

During his quaestorship, Caesar delivered funeral orations for his aunt Julia and wife Cornelia, in which he emphasized the divine ancestry of his family through Venus and the royal ancestry through the Marcii Reges.

After his quaestorship, Caesar married Pompeia (daughter of Quintus Pompeius and granddaughter of Sylla) but later divorced her due to suspicion that she had been seduced by Publius Clodius during sacred rites.

While serving as quaestor in Farther-Spain, Caesar saw a statue of Alexander the Great and was troubled by his own lack of great achievements; he had a dream interpreted as presaging universal empire.

Caesar attempted to incite Latin colonies seeking Roman freedom to rebellion, and was implicated in at least two alleged conspiracies: one with Crassus and others to overthrow the senate, and another with Cneius Piso to incite provincial revolt.

As aedile, Caesar beautified public spaces and provided lavish entertainment including gladiatorial games, attracting such crowds that he gained sole credit for the joint efforts, prompting his colleague's jealous remark.

Caesar attempted to secure Egypt as a province through popular legislation but faced noble opposition; he then worked to diminish noble influence by restoring Marian trophies and treating pro-proscription assassins as murderers.

Caesar orchestrated the prosecution of Caius Rabirius for his role in suppressing Lucius Saturninus; though serving as judge, Caesar condemned him with such animosity that his appeal to the people was influenced by Caesar's bitterness.

Caesar spent lavishly on bribery to secure the position of chief pontiff, famously telling his mother he would never return home unless elected; he won by a margin that exceeded both competitors' combined votes.

When the Catiline conspiracy was discovered during his praetorship, Caesar alone proposed distributing the conspirators to Italian towns rather than executing them; Cato's speech nearly prevented this leniency.

Upon beginning his praetorship, Caesar attempted to remove Catulus from his position as curator of the Capitol but was unable to withstand aristocratic opposition.

Caesar supported tribune Caecilius Metellus in proposing violent laws; both were dismissed by the senate, but after Caesar avoided armed conflict and calmed the mob, the senate restored him with thanks.

Caesar was named as an accomplice of Catiline by informers Vettius and Curius; Caesar appealed to Cicero for confirmation of his earlier disclosures about the plot and forced Vettius to recant.

After his praetorship, Caesar was assigned Farther-Spain by lot; he quickly pacified creditors by finding sureties for his debts and then departed immediately, deviating from normal procedure.

Caesar allied with Lucius Luceius to win the consulship; the nobles countered by backing Bibulus with matching bribes, and Caesar was elected jointly with Bibulus, who proved ineffectual.

Caesar introduced the practice of publishing daily acts of the senate and people, and revived the custom of officers preceding him in alternate months, establishing unprecedented direct administrative authority.

Caesar distributed public lands to over twenty thousand freemen and made concessions to publicans; he quashed opposition through intimidation, including imprisoning Cato and using Vettius as an informant.

Caesar married Calpurnia (daughter of his successor consul) and gave his daughter Julia to Pompey, shifting his consulting pattern to favor Pompey over Crassus and cementing a triumvirate.

With backing from Pompey and Crassus, Caesar obtained first Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, then Gallia-Comata when the senate feared the people would grant it anyway; he boasted of his power despite enemies' mortification.

After his consulship, Caesar carefully secured allegiances of magistrates and even required oaths from some to defend him in his absence, preventing impeachment during his governorship.

When Lucius Domitius threatened to divest Caesar of his command, Caesar summoned Crassus and Pompey to Lucca and secured their agreement to seek consulship again and extend his command for five years.

During nine years governing Gaul, Caesar reduced all the region to a province, crossed the Rhine to defeat Germanic tribes, invaded Britain and exacted tribute, experiencing only three signal setbacks.

During his governorship, Caesar lost his mother, daughter Julia, and granddaughter; meanwhile, the senate granted him candidacy in absentia for his second consulship.

Caesar built a new forum at enormous cost and promised lavish gladiatorial games and feasts; he doubled soldier pay and distributed land, building unprecedented popularity and expectation.

Caesar offered Pompey his sister's granddaughter Octavia in marriage and requested Pompey's daughter for himself; he secured senators and others through loans and gifts.

Caesar presented captives and military aid to princes and provinces, and embellished cities across the empire, arousing concern among senators about his ambitions.

Consul Claudius Marcellus moved to appoint Caesar's successor before his command expired and strip him of his candidacy privilege; he also sought to revoke citizenship from Caesar's colonists.

Caesar used tribunes and consul Servius Sulpicius to resist Marcellus's measures; the following year, he bribed consul Aemilius Paulus and tribune Curio to continue opposing Caesar's enemies.

When the senate rejected compromise and his enemies declared they would not negotiate on the matter of his safety, Caesar advanced into Hither-Gaul and resolved to use military force if necessary.

Suetonius presents competing explanations for Caesar's resort to arms: personal financial difficulties, fear of impeachment, or a deeper love of power developed through habit.

Caesar crossed the Rubicon after a mysterious incident with a piper, declaring 'The die is now cast' and invoking omens of the gods and the iniquity of his enemies.

A mysterious figure played a pipe that drew soldiers from their posts; when he seized a trumpet and sounded the advance across the river, Caesar interpreted it as divine sanction for crossing.

After crossing, Caesar showed the soldiers the exiled tribunes and called upon the troops to pledge loyalty with great emotion; a misunderstanding led soldiers to believe he promised each of them estates.

Caesar rapidly secured Picenum, Umbria, and Etruria, pursued Pompey to Brundisium, then turned to Spain where he defeated Pompey's forces under three generals.

Caesar crossed to Macedonia, blocked Pompey for four months, and defeated him at Pharsalia; he pursued Pompey to Alexandria where he became involved in Egyptian warfare.

From Alexandria, Caesar went to Syria and Pontus, defeating Pharnaces's forces decisively; he then defeated Scipio and Juba in Africa and Pompey's sons in Spain.

Throughout the civil war, Caesar personally suffered no defeats, though some lieutenants were overcome; he emerged from every engagement victorious except for rare moments of doubt.

Caesar triumphed five times: four in one month after defeating Scipio, and once after defeating Pompey's sons; his Gallic triumph was most glorious, celebrated with dramatic spectacle.

Caesar distributed prize-money and land to soldiers, remitted debts and rents to common people, and provided public entertainment and meat distributions across Italy.

Caesar exhibited diverse public spectacles including gladiatorial combats, stage plays in various languages, circus games, wrestling, a sea-fight, and hunts across multiple venues in Rome.

Caesar corrected the disordered calendar by ordaining a year of 365 days with intercalary days every fourth year, and inserting two months to align the calendar properly.

Caesar filled senate vacancies by advancing plebeians to patrician rank, increased numbers of various magistrates, restored degraded members, and divided magistrate selection with the people.

Caesar prevented population drain by restricting citizens from foreign residence and making physicians and teachers of liberal arts free inhabitants of Rome.

Rather than canceling all debts, Caesar ordered debtors to satisfy creditors at pre-war property valuations, with interest deducted, thereby losing about a fourth of total debt.

Caesar was extremely strict in justice, expelling corrupt senators, enforcing sumptuary laws, and even seizing meats illegally offered for sale.

Caesar envisioned a temple to Mars, a grand theatre, a comprehensive civil law code, a public library, drainage of marshes, and various military campaigns including against the Parthians.

Caesar was tall with fair complexion, black piercing eyes, and excellent health except for occasional fainting fits and epilepsy; he was fastidious about grooming and dress.

Caesar first lived in the Suburra, then moved to the Via Sacra after his advancement; he was fastidious about his villas, even tearing down an expensive one that didn't suit him.

Caesar sought pearls from Britain, collected gems and ancient artworks at any cost, and purchased young slaves at exorbitant prices, concealing the amounts from his expense records.

Caesar maintained two tables in provinces, was meticulous about household affairs, even imprisoning a baker for serving finer bread than his guests.

Caesar was persistently mocked for his alleged cohabitation with King Nicomedes, a scandal referenced in speeches, edicts, and soldiers' jests throughout his life.

Caesar debauched many noble ladies including wives of prominent men; his greatest love was Servilia, mother of Brutus, for whom he spent vast sums and granted valuable properties.

Caesar conducted affairs with numerous women in the provinces, including the Moorish queen Eunoe and most notably Cleopatra, with whom he fathered a son.

Caesar was abstemious with wine and indifferent in diet, eating whatever was served without complaint to avoid offending hosts.

Caesar extracted money from Spanish allies and towns, plundered temples and chapels in Gaul, and substituted gilt brass for gold in the Capitol.

Caesar was an accomplished orator ranking among the greatest, with elegant, splendid, and noble eloquence; Cicero praised his pointed, terse periods and polished language.

Caesar wrote Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars noted for purity, precision, and perspicuity; Cicero praised them as elegant without affectation, and Hirtius commended their ease and correctness.

Caesar composed two books on Analogy and Anti-Cato, a poem called The Itinerary, letters to the senate and friends, and used a cipher for secret correspondence.

Caesar was skilled in arms, an accomplished rider, and able to endure extraordinary fatigue; he traveled at high speeds without baggage and swam across rivers.

Caesar balanced reconnaissance with bold action, examining ground carefully before marching yet striking swiftly when opportunity presented itself.

Caesar was not deterred by omens, proceeding with military actions despite unfavorable sacrifices and turning bad omens to his advantage.

Caesar fought pitched battles and sudden attacks, once sending away all horses to prevent flight and eliminate retreat options, forcing troops to stand their ground.

Caesar owned a horse with divided hooves resembling human toes; soothsayers interpreted this as an omen of universal dominion, and Caesar erected a statue of it in Venus's temple.

Caesar rallied fleeing troops through personal intervention, grabbing and redirecting soldiers despite injuries; his leadership inspired extraordinary devotion.

Caesar met enemies unarmed, faced ambushes with composure, jumped into the sea to escape, and protected his military cloak with his teeth.

Caesar valued soldiers for courage alone and treated troops with severity when facing enemies but indulgence otherwise; he gave little notice of movements to maintain readiness.

When troops feared enemy numbers, Caesar exaggerated enemy forces rather than denying reports, rallying courage through frank acknowledgment of difficulties.

Caesar was lenient about minor transgressions but severely punished deserters and mutineers; he sometimes granted relaxation after victory.

Caesar's soldiers remained absolutely loyal during the civil war, offering their service free of pay and support, enduring extreme hardships and never deserting.

Caesar's troops never mutinied during the Gallic war though occasionally refractory during the civil war; he maintained control through authority rather than indulgence.

When the tenth legion demanded discharge and rewards with violent threats, Caesar met them and disbanded them; he then recalled them by addressing them as 'Quirites' rather than 'Soldiers.'

Caesar zealously defended clients including the noble youth Masintha, demonstrating great loyalty and fidelity even at personal risk.

Caesar treated friends with warmth and kindness, advancing those of humble origin to high office and making exceptions for those he had promoted.

Caesar was quick to renounce resentment against those who had opposed him, assisting Memmius despite their former rivalry and reconciling with Calvus and Catullus.

Despite swearing to crucify the pirates who captured him, Caesar first had them killed mercifully; he showed mercy to others including those who had attempted to betray him.

Caesar treated enemies with remarkable clemency, sparing most prisoners while Pompey would have called them enemies; he permitted those unpardoned to return to Italy.

Caesar restored Pompey's and Sylla's statues, responded mildly to libels against himself, and showed moderation even when provoked by public disrespect.

Caesar accepted the annual consulship, lifelong dictatorship, censorship, the title of Father of His Country, and a statue among the kings.

Caesar accepted temples, altars, and a priesthood dedicated to himself, as well as having his name on months and other religious dedications.

Caesar appointed magistrates for life terms, granted consular insignia to pretorians, admitted freedmen and Gallic semi-barbarians to the senate.

Caesar appointed his own household servants to major treasury and military positions, including a freedman's son to command legions.

Caesar declared the republic a mere name, called Sylla ignorant, and asserted men should consider his words as law.

Caesar received the senate sitting down, an offense interpreted as unpardonable disrespect for the senators' authority and rank.

When tribune Pontius Aquila failed to rise before Caesar, Caesar took offense and refused to grant any favors for days without Aquila's permission.

When someone placed a laurel crown with white fillet on Caesar's statue, he harshly punished the tribunes who removed it, fueling rumors of royal ambition.

At Lupercalia, Antony repeatedly offered Caesar a crown, which Caesar repeatedly refused and sent to Jupiter, but rumors persisted of his desire for kingship.

The conspirators hastened their plot because they feared Caesar would be granted the title of king if Lucius Cotta's proposed motion succeeded.

Hand-bills and verses mocked Caesar for admitting Gauls to the senate and elevating them to patrician rank.

About sixty people, including Cassius and Brutus, conspired against Caesar; they debated locations before settling on the senate house on the Ides of March.

Multiple omens presaged Caesar's death: a tablet in Capua predicting Iulus descendant's murder, horses refusing food, Spurinna's warnings about the Ides of March.

Calpurnia dreamed the house pediment was falling and Caesar was stabbed; she begged him to stay home, and Caesar nearly yielded but was persuaded by Decimus Brutus.

Tullius Cimber seized Caesar's toga to begin the assassination; Caesar was stabbed twenty-three times by multiple conspirators, saying only 'Et tu, Brute?' when Brutus struck.

Caesar's body lay after his death until slaves carried it home on a litter; conspirators planned to drag it to the Tiber but were deterred by fear of Antony and Lepidus.

Caesar's will made Caius Octavius his heir for three-fourths of his estate, with others getting one-fourth; he adopted Octavius into his family.

Caesar's funeral featured a gilded tabernacle and ivory bed; dramatic passages from tragedies were sung; senators carried his body to the Campus Martius where it was burned.

The populace attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius with torches; mistaking Helvius Cinna for the Cornelius Cinna who had criticized Caesar, they murdered him.

A column was erected to Caesar in the Forum where people offered sacrifices and swore oaths; he was officially deified and represented with a star on his brow.

Some believed Caesar's declining health made him indifferent to omens; others thought his confidence in the senate's oaths made him dismiss his guards.

Caesar had expressed a preference for sudden death after reading about Cyrus; his actual death was sudden and easy, as he would have wished.

Caesar died at fifty-six years old, suddenly between Livia's kisses after speaking final words about their union.

The translator provides extensive analysis of how the republic's degradation made absolute government acceptable, tracing the causes of Rome's loss of freedom.

The translator explains how religious institutions and tribunician authority maintained republican balance, though both ultimately weakened public virtue.

By Caesar's time, venality, luxury, and dissipation had spread throughout society; the Catiline conspiracy exemplified the complete moral corruption.

The translator considers whether Caesar sought power from necessity (debt and fear of prosecution) or from ambition, with Cicero's evidence suggesting the latter.

Had Pompey pursued his advantage after beating Caesar at Dyrrachium and not withdrawn from Italy, the republic might have survived.

Though Caesar exercised supreme power, he showed more moderation than expected, leaving senators hope that the republic might be restored.

The translator argues the republic was inherently unstable, unable to manage the vast wealth and power accumulated through conquests.