Book Second, Part I
Description of Cublay Khan's reign, his palace, the city of Cambaluc, and administrative systems of the Mongol Empire.
95 argumentative units
- 01Statement of the work's scope and contents
Yule explains that this is the complete Yule-Cordier edition of Marco Polo's travels, including annotated translation and supplementary notes, covering Polo's journey across Asia to the Mongol Empire with extensive scholarly apparatus.
- 02Identification of major obscurities in Polo's biography and book
Yule notes that despite the book's intrinsic interest, it raises difficult questions about proper identifications, interpretation of terms, dating of events, and the language in which it was written.
- 03Assessment of Ramusio's biographical work
Though Ramusio's account contains errors of detail, Yule judges it essential because it preserves genuine traditions of the Traveller that could not have been spun in later times.
- 04Ramusio's vindication of Polo's geographical accuracy
Yule cites Ramusio's argument that subsequent discoveries by Portuguese explorers and others have confirmed many of Polo's geographical claims that had been dismissed as fabulous.
- 05Ramusio's comparative assessment of Polo and Columbus
Yule presents Ramusio's argument that Polo's overland journeys through desperate terrain were more difficult than Columbus's sea voyage, and that Polo's discoveries were not subsequently replicated like Columbus's.
- 06Ramusio's legendary account of the Polos' return to Venice
Yule recounts Ramusio's story of how the Polos, unrecognized by relatives due to their changed appearance and shabby dress, revealed their wealth through dramatic unveilings of precious stones sewn into their garments.
- 07Explanation of Marco's nickname 'Milione'
Yule explains that Polo was nicknamed 'Milione' (the Millions) because he frequently used the word 'millions' when describing the Kaan's vast revenues and wealth, which was then an unusual term in Venice.
- 08Ramusio's account of Marco's capture by the Genoese
Yule cites Ramusio's narrative of Marco being put in charge of a galley and captured when the Venetian fleet was defeated at Curzola by the Genoese under Lampa Doria.
- 09Description of how Genoese honored Marco during captivity
Yule reports that upon learning of Marco's travels and qualities, the Genoese treated him with great honor rather than as a prisoner, visiting him daily and giving him presents.
- 10Ramusio's account of Marco's liberation and marriage
Yule presents Ramusio's narrative of how Marco's continued captivity prompted his father to remarry and have other sons, and how Marco eventually gained freedom through Genoese favor and took a wife himself.
- 11Ramusio's account of the Polo family's end
Yule records Ramusio's genealogical information showing how the Polo family line ended when Marco's daughters married into other families, with the family property passing to the Trevisan line.
- 12Sketch of Asian political situation in 1260
Yule describes the state of the Levantine regions, noting Venice's advantages and Genoa's rivalry, the various Mongol sovereignties under Chinghiz's descendants, and the untouched Dravidian kingdoms of Southern India.
- 13Description of Mongol political divisions
Yule explains how the Mongol Empire was splitting into four great monarchies under descendants of Chinghiz's sons, with various regional rulers maintaining nominal allegiance to the Great Kaan.
- 14Account of Kublai's assumption of the Great Kaanship
Yule notes that Kublai ascended the chief throne before his predecessor Mangku's death in 1259, and moved the capital from Kara Korum to more populous regions in Eastern China.
- 15History of Chinese dynasties preceding Mongol conquest
Yule explains how Northern China had been ruled by foreign dynasties—first the Khitan (Liao), then the Jurchen (Tai-Kin)—before Mongol conquest, and how Southern China still remained under the native Sung dynasty.
- 16Discussion of the Polo family's alleged origins
Yule presents various legendary accounts of the Polo family's origins—from companions of Antenor or King Venetus, or from Paolo the first Doge—but judges the tradition of coming from Sebenico in Dalmatia as most trustworthy.
- 17Establishment of the Polo family's nobility
Yule reports that members of the Polo family appeared in Venetian records from the 11th century, eventually establishing themselves as confirmed noble families with seats in the Great Council.
- 18Establishment of Marco Polo's personal claim to nobility
Yule reports that recent documentary evidence has definitively established Marco's claims to nobility through his designation as 'Nobilis Vir' in judicial documents and council resolutions.
- 19Account of Marco the Elder
Yule describes how Marco the Elder (the traveller's grandfather) was established in Constantinople and Soldaia, had children there, and made his will in 1280.
- 20Initial travels of Nicolo and Maffeo Polo
Yule recounts how Nicolo and Maffeo, the father and uncle of Marco the Traveller, set out from Constantinople to Crimea and then progressed northward via the Volga to Bokhara and eventually the Great Kaan's court.
- 21Reference to earlier Franciscan missions to the East
Yule notes that friars Plano Carpini and William Rubruquis had previously reached the Mongol court and reported on Cathay, establishing the reality of this distant civilization for Europeans.
- 22Account of Kublai's reception of the Polo brothers
Yule describes how Kublai was delighted with the Venetian brothers, listened with interest to their accounts of Europe, and desired to send them back as ambassadors to the Pope with letters requesting missionaries.
- 23First return of the Polos to Venice
Yule reports that the brothers reached Acre in 1269 to find no Pope elected; they returned to Venice where Nicolo found his wife dead but his son Marco now fifteen years old.
- 24Discussion of Maffeo as Marco's brother
Yule explores whether Maffeo was younger or older than Marco, and whether they shared the same mother, based on his will and various textual accounts.
- 25Second journey of the Polos with young Marco
Yule recounts how the brothers set out again for the East, taking young Marco with them, after finally obtaining a Pope (Gregory X.) who could provide letters but only two Dominican friars instead of the hundred teachers Kublai had requested.
- 26Probable routing of the Polos' journey to the East
Yule conjectures that the Polos probably traveled via Ayas, Sivas, and Mosul to Hormuz, then turned north through Persia, Khorasan, and over the Pamir plateau to eventually reach Kublai at Kai-ping fu around May 1275.
- 27Marco's employment in the Kaan's service
Yule describes how Marco quickly impressed Kublai through his discretion and ability, acquired languages and written characters, was appointed as an official, and undertook various missions throughout the Mongol Empire.
- 28Marco's first major mission to Yunnan
Yule reports that Marco's first mission took him through several Chinese provinces to the remote province of Yunnan, where he gathered information about curious peoples, customs, and products that pleased the Kaan.
- 29References to Marco's various subsequent missions
Yule notes that while details are sparse, Marco apparently held the governorship of Yang-chau for three years, visited Kan-chau and Kara Korum, and undertook a mission to the Indian Seas.
- 30Circumstances of the Polos' departure with the princess Kokachin
Yule explains how Arghun Khan's widow-bride commission and the Polos' reputation in navigation led to Kublai sending them with the Mongol princess Kokachin by sea to Persia, a perilous voyage lasting over two years.
- 31Difficulties and losses during the sea voyage
Yule reports that the voyage from China to Persia involved long detentions, losses of life including many in the suite, and the death of Arghun Khan before the party even arrived in Persia.
- 32Return of the Polos to Venice
Yule states that the Polos reached Venice sometime in 1295, having learned of significant changes during their 24-year absence, and began reintegrating into Venetian society.
- 33Description of medieval galley construction and rowing systems
Yule provides extensive technical details about how medieval galleys were constructed, manned, and rowed, including the system of multiple oars per bench and crew sizes.
- 34Exposition of Venetian-Genoese commercial and naval conflicts
Yule describes the escalating jealousies and wars between Venice and Genoa over Mediterranean trade, with specific attention to conflicts in the Levant and the rivalry over access to Eastern trade routes.
- 35Account of the Genoese victory at Ayas in 1294
Yule describes a Genoese naval victory over Venetian forces off Ayas in which the Genoese defeated a larger Venetian fleet, capturing and burning numerous ships.
- 36Description of Lamba Doria's expedition to the Adriatic
Yule recounts how the Genoese prepared a powerful fleet under Lamba Doria and sailed it to the Adriatic to attack Venice in her home waters, eventually reaching Curzola.
- 37The fleets' meeting and the battle of Curzola
Yule describes how the Venetian and Genoese fleets encountered each other near Curzola on 6-7 September 1298, with the Genoese gaining a decisive victory and capturing most of the Venetian fleet.
- 38Marco Polo's capture and imprisonment
Yule reports that Marco Polo was among the over 7000 prisoners taken at Curzola and was carried to Genoa in captivity, eventually spending time in the Genoese prison.
- 39Assessment of evidence for Polo's capture at Curzola
Yule acknowledges that contemporary documentation of Marco's capture at Curzola is lacking, but argues that Ramusio's account and contemporary implications in Rusticiano's preamble provide reasonable grounds for belief.
- 40Identification of Rusticiano as a Pisan prisoner from Meloria
Yule suggests that Rusticiano of Pisa was likely among the surviving prisoners from the 1284 Battle of Meloria, held captive in Genoa for years before meeting Marco in 1298.
- 41Rusticiano's work as a Romance compiler
Yule identifies Rusticiano as the compiler of French prose romances of the Round Table cycle, reworking earlier compositions by such figures as Robert and Hélis de Borron.
- 42Assessment of Rusticiano's literary character
Yule cites Paulin Paris's view that Rusticiano was an industrious but simple man who worked hastily, without method or much judgment, rearranging sources and creating narrative confusions.
- 43Confirmation of Rusticiano's identity as both romancer and Polo's scribe
Yule argues that the unique preface formula common to both Rusticiano's romance compilations and Marco Polo's book definitively establishes that they are the work of the same person.
- 44Further biographical details about Rusticiano
Yule notes that Rusticiano likely derived his real name from the Italian form Rustichello, was released after peace between Genoa and Pisa in 1299, and is not heard of again.
- 45Documentary notices of Marco after his release from prison
Yule presents sparse but significant records from documents showing Marco's activities and status in Venice after 1299, including his acquisition of property and business dealings.
- 46Confirmation of the 'Milione' nickname in official records
Yule cites documentary evidence from 1305 showing Marco officially designated as 'Milione,' confirming the nickname's authentic use in Venetian government records.
- 47Marco's relations with Thibault de Cepoy
Yule describes how Marco presented a copy of his book to the French knight Thibault de Cepoy during the latter's embassy to Venice in 1306-1307 on behalf of Charles of Valois.
- 48Information about Marco's marriage and daughters
Yule reports that Marco married a woman named Donata and had three daughters—Fantina, Bellela, and Moreta—who were all married by or shortly after 1324.
- 49Record of Marco's commercial litigation over musk
Yule cites a 1311 court case in which Marco sued a commission merchant for failure to account for a shipment of musk, the only known document showing Marco engaged in practical trade.
- 50Full text and analysis of Marco Polo's last will and testament
Yule presents the complete text of Marco's will from 9 January 1324, showing his bequests, the names of his family members, and his arrangement for burial in the Church of S. Lorenzo.
- 51Information about Marco's death and burial place
Yule reports that Marco died sometime after making his will in January 1324, was buried in the Church of S. Lorenzo as instructed, though no monument was erected to him.
- 52Further history of the Polo family after Marco's death
Yule traces the subsequent history of Marco's daughters and their marriages, noting how the family property passed to the Trevisan line and eventually produced a Doge.
- 53Description of the structure and contents of Polo's book
Yule explains that the book consists of a Prologue (personal narrative) and a long series of chapters describing Asian regions, the Mongol court, and later historical wars.
- 54Determination that the book was originally written in French
Yule argues through extensive evidence that Marco's book was originally dictated in French (a rough Franco-Venetian jargon) to Rusticiano, not in Latin or Italian as previously believed.
- 55Analysis of the Tuscan Italian text in Florence
Yule examines the oldest known Italian manuscript (L'Ottima) from 1309 and shows that it is a translation from French, not an original Italian composition.
- 56Geographic text as closest to original dictation
Yule argues that the French Geographic Text represents the nearest approximation to what Rusticiano actually wrote down from Marco's oral dictation, with all its roughness and repetitions.
- 57Justification of medieval French language usage
Yule explains why the use of French for Polo's book was not unusual, citing widespread use of French among literati across Europe in the 13th-14th centuries.
- 58Classification of four principal types of text
Yule establishes a taxonomy of Polo texts: Type I (Geographic, oldest French), Type II (remodeled French, possibly Marco-approved), Type III (Pipino's Latin), and Type IV (Ramusio's Italian).
- 59Characteristics and claims for Pauthier's text type
Yule analyzes the French manuscripts that Pauthier used, noting they show revision and improvement but also omissions and errors, without the perfection claimed by Pauthier.
- 60Distinction of subdivisions within Type II texts
Yule identifies that Type II texts divide into two distinct recensions, with the Bern/Oxford manuscripts representing an older form than those of Pauthier's A and B.
- 61Characteristics of Friar Pipino's Latin translation
Yule describes Pipino's Latin version as more condensed than Type I, divided into three books, and showing signs of derivative rather than direct translation from an Italian version.
- 62Critique of Grynaeus's fifth-hand Latin translation
Yule criticizes the Latin version published by Grynaeus as a retranslation from a Romance language version of Pipino, introducing modifications, generalizations, and sciolism that make it virtually worthless.
- 63Identification of Ramusio's text as significantly divergent
Yule analyzes how Ramusio's Italian version deviates substantially from all other text types through additions, omissions, textual modifications, and apparent interpolations from other sources.
- 64Evidence of editorial modification in Ramusio
Yule catalogs numerous instances where Ramusio substituted more modern place names for Polo's terms, altered facts to fit erroneous dates, and made other editorialchanges.
- 65Genuinely authentic material peculiar to Ramusio
Yule argues that certain specific details found only in Ramusio (regarding the Yak, goitre at Yarkand, water-tight ship compartments, sugar refining from Egypt, etc.) are likely authentic recollections of Marco himself.
- 66Hypothesis for the origin and composition of Ramusio's text
Yule proposes that Ramusio probably worked from Pipino's Latin combined with supplementary notes that Marco himself added to a copy of his book in his later years.
- 67Notice of an Irish translation of Polo
Yule briefly describes a remarkable Irish-language version of Polo's book found in the Book of Lismore, which was made from Pipino's Latin around 1460.
- 68Assessment of Polo's place among medieval travelers
Yule argues that Polo's preeminence rests more on the breadth of his journeys and the romance of his history than on transcendent superiority of character, with Rubruquis perhaps offering richer detail.
- 69Summary of Polo's genuine achievements
Yule catalogs Polo's authentic contributions: first to trace a complete route across Asia's longitude, first to reveal China's wealth and scale, first to describe numerous Asian regions and peoples previously unknown to Europeans.
- 70Assessment of Polo's personality from his book
Yule attempts to infer Marco's character from his writings: a practical, brave, shrewd, prudent man interested in commerce and hunting, with respect for ascetics but contempt for heretics.
- 71Absence of humor and scientific knowledge in Polo's book
Yule notes that Polo's book contains almost no humor and shows little scientific knowledge, unlike some contemporary travelers, relying instead on descriptive narrative and practical observation.
- 72Analysis of Polo's geographical bearings and distances
Yule explains that Polo uses consistent directional bearings and estimated distances, though sometimes with notable errors, such as his conception of Arabian coastal cities' positions.
- 73Notable omissions regarding China in Polo's book
Yule catalogs significant gaps in Polo's Chinese observations—the Great Wall, tea, foot-binding, cormorant fishing, printing—suggesting his contacts were chiefly with foreign officials.
- 74Polo's inaccuracies in Mongol history and chronology
Yule acknowledges that Polo makes errors regarding Chinghiz's death, his successors' relationships, and the chronology of events, with the Saianfu siege account being particularly problematic.
- 75Question of Rusticiano's influence on Polo's narrative
Yule speculates that Rusticiano may have influenced the bombastic style of battle descriptions, though it seems unlikely given Polo's generally sober tone.
- 76Evidence of Polo's reading of Alexandrian romances
Yule demonstrates through references to the Iron Gate, Gog and Magog, Alexander's marriage to Darius's daughter, and the Arbre Sol that Polo knew the legendary histories of Alexander.
- 77Contemporary and near-contemporary skepticism about Polo
Yule cites evidence that Polo's reputation in his lifetime and immediately after was questionable, with some contemporaries dismissing his book as fabulous and friends urging him on his deathbed to retract his claims.
- 78Assessment of the book's diffusion in the 14th century
Yule argues against Ramusio's claim of immediate widespread diffusion, noting that the number of surviving manuscripts suggests more modest circulation than works like Maundevile's.
- 79Absence of Marco Polo references in Dante and limited mentions in contemporary literature
Yule notes that Dante never mentions Polo or Cathay in the Divine Comedy, and contemporary literary references to Marco are remarkably sparse, suggesting limited immediate impact.
- 80Catalog of known contemporary and near-contemporary references to Polo
Yule identifies five definite contemporary references to Marco Polo: the Thibault de Cepoy note, Pipino's preface, Jacopo d'Acqui's mention, Villani's reference, and Pietro of Abano's personal account.
- 81Extensive borrowings from Polo in the Romance of Bauduin de Sebourc
Yule demonstrates that the early 14th-century French romance borrowed at least seven distinct themes from Polo's book, reworking them with poetic freedom into a crusading narrative.
- 82Tardy and limited operation of Polo's influence on geography
Yule argues that Polo's vast new facts did not immediately revolutionize geographical knowledge due to the imperfect nature of medieval publication, traditional approaches to geography, and lack of scientific principle.
- 83Description of medieval cosmographical conventions and limitations
Yule explains how medieval maps were dominated by theological and traditional conceptions, with Jerusalem at the center and the inhabited world arranged in a T-O format within an encircling ocean.
- 84Roger Bacon's efforts to advance geographical knowledge
Yule praises Roger Bacon's attempts to criticize and improve geographical knowledge through consultation of actual travelers like Rubruquis, though he lacked sufficient materials for comprehensive improvement.
- 85Limitations of Arab geographic achievement despite early promise
Yule notes that despite having capable geographers and access to Ptolemy, Arab maps remained on the old circular-disk system, which acted as a drag on geographical progress.
- 86Marino Sanudo's world map as representative of medieval cosmography
Yule analyzes Marino Sanudo's map (1300-1320) as an exceptionally favorable specimen of medieval geography, though still dominated by traditional conceptions of Jerusalem as Earth's center.
- 87The Catalan Map of 1375 as Polo's greatest cartographic influence
Yule argues that the Catalan Map represents the fullest realization of Polo's geographical influence on medieval cartography, using his book as a foundation for depicting Central Asia and India.
- 88Confusion in 16th-century cartography from combining Polo and Ptolemy
Yule describes how the 16th century produced cartographic confusions by attempting to combine Polo's nomenclature with Ptolemy's systems, displacing Cathay northward and creating a problematic hybrid.
- 89Gradual disappearance of Polo's nomenclature with increased Asian knowledge
Yule traces how Polo's names gradually disappeared from maps as Russian knowledge of Northern Asia and Jesuit surveys improved geographical understanding through the 17th and 18th centuries.
- 90Examination of the claim that Polo introduced block-printing to Europe
Yule critically examines the allegation that Marco Polo brought Chinese block-printed books that inspired European printing development, finding the evidence entirely worthless.
- 91Evaluation of the Castaldi tradition and its implausibility
Yule analyzes the Castaldi tradition crediting Pamphilo Castaldi with learning printing from Polo's books, finding it dubious though acknowledging that block-printing techniques likely came from China.
- 92Observation that many travelers beside Polo could have brought block-books
Yule notes that the regular trade between Italy and China during the 14th century meant many travelers besides Polo could have brought block-printed books, making the Polo attribution speculative.
- 93Explanation of the eclectic approach to this translation
Yule justifies his choice to translate from Pauthier's condensed text while incorporating material from the Geographic Text and selected genuine passages from Ramusio.
- 94Methodology for rendering proper names and foreign words
Yule explains his approach of selecting the truest manuscript readings for place names, adopting English spelling forms, and recognizing that Polo's spellings, though in Italian fashion, are generally accurate representations of Oriental terms.
- 95Analysis of Polo's consistent rendering of Chinese city-name terminations
Yule demonstrates that Polo's rendering of Chinese city names ending in -tchéou as -giu is a consistent, nearly universal principle that represents accurate phonetic transcription.