Chapter IX

Despite natural freedom in the state of nature, men possess uncertain enjoyment of their rights because others equally free often violate equity and justice, creating perpetual dangers.

The primary purpose of men uniting into commonwealths and government is the preservation of property, which requires institutional mechanisms absent in nature.

The state of nature lacks an agreed-upon, publicly known law standard because men are biased by self-interest and ignorant, making them unwilling to accept the natural law as binding.

In nature, every man judges his own case, leading to partiality, passion, and inconsistent application of justice due to self-interest and negligence.

The state of nature lacks centralized power to enforce judgments, allowing wrongdoers to resist punishment by force and making justice dangerous or impossible.

The three institutional defects of nature—lack of known law, impartial judges, and enforcement power—make the natural condition intolerable, causing men to abandon their individual punitive power and form government.

In the state of nature, man has two powers: the power to preserve himself and others within natural law, and the power to punish violations of that law.

Without human corruption and vice, men could remain in the natural community under natural law alone, but degenerate men require artificial political societies.

When entering political society, individuals give up both the power to preserve themselves under natural law and the power to punish transgressions.

The power of self-preservation is surrendered to be regulated by laws made by society, which may restrict natural liberty as social preservation requires.

Men give up entirely the power to punish and commit their natural force to the executive power of society, justified because they receive the benefits and protection of the community.

Though men surrender liberty and power to society, rational consent requires that legislative power cannot extend beyond the common good and must remedy the three natural defects to preserve property.

Legitimate government must govern by established, known, written laws; employ impartial judges; and exercise force only for law execution and foreign defense, all directed toward peace and public good.