Book II: On the Interpretation of Nature, or the Reign of Man

Bacon distinguishes between two primary human labors: exercising power to generate new natures in bodies, and exercising knowledge to discover the form or source of a given nature. Two secondary labors subordinate to these are also outlined: transformation of bodies and discovery of latent processes.

Bacon criticizes the state of human knowledge, noting that while the four causes are recognized, final cause corrupts science and the discovery of form is considered impossible. Efficient cause and matter, as currently studied, are superficial and of little use.

Bacon redefines form as the fundamental law governing a simple nature, not an abstract essence. This law exists in every particular instance of that nature and is the foundation of both theory and practice.

Knowledge of forms alone provides genuine understanding and genuine power. One who knows only efficient and material causes achieves imperfect knowledge and limited power, while knowledge of forms reveals unity in apparently distinct substances.

Power and knowledge are intimately connected. To avoid abstract speculation, scientific foundations should be built from practical considerations, defining what precepts would enable generation of desired natures in bodies.

A genuine rule must be certain, free (not restrictive), and practically applicable. The same rule that defines perfect practice also defines perfect theory: the form is convertible with the given nature and limits more known natures as a real genus.

Axioms fall into two kinds: those proceeding from simple natures (more general and powerful) and those proceeding from latent processes in concrete bodies (more apparent and easier to apply). The first kind opens broader paths to human power.

The second kind of axiom investigates the latent process—the continuous, hidden operations of nature—from initial states through complete development, examining all changes and transformations of bodies and natural phenomena.

Higher and more radical operations upon nature depend on primary axioms. Even in domains like astronomy where man cannot act on heavenly bodies, investigation must refer to primary axioms concerning simple natures.

Latent process is the hidden, continuous operation escaping observation, involving minute changes: what is lost, remains, added, diluted, contracted, united, separated, continuous, broken, impeded, or predominant. Such minute efforts must be comprehended to direct or change nature.

Latent conformation—the real texture and structure of bodies—must be discovered through reasoning, induction, and comparison with other bodies, not through violent fire separation. This requires moving from empirical fire-based analysis to rational analysis.

Inquiry must examine spirit and tangible essence in each body—their abundance, fineness, activity, and arrangement—as well as pores, passages, cells, and organic rudiments. Primary axioms alone provide genuine light for such inquiry.

The method avoids atomism's false assumptions and instead investigates real particles. Refining investigation from the complicated to the simple clarifies inquiry; applying mathematics to physics enhances understanding.

Investigation of eternal, immutable forms constitutes metaphysics; investigation of efficient cause, matter, latent process, and latent conformation constitutes physics. Parallel practical divisions are magic (to metaphysics) and mechanics (to physics).

Signs for interpreting nature divide into: eliciting axioms from experiment and deriving new experiments from axioms. The first requires natural history, organized tables, and true induction—the key to interpretation.

Investigation of forms begins by presenting to understanding all known instances agreeing in the same nature, collected as history without premature reflection. Heat serves as the example, with a comprehensive table of instances exhibiting heat.

Forms must be absent where given natures are absent. Negative instances must be classified under affirmatives, focusing on objects closely connected to those exhibiting the nature. This is the table of deviation or absence in proximity.

Extensive examples demonstrate that rays of moon and stars are not warm, rays in middle air regions give no heat (with caveats about mountain peaks), and polar region reflections are weak. Various negative instances refine the understanding of heat's conditions.

Since form is essence and differs from thing only as exterior from interior, natures are forms only if they uniformly diminish and increase with the given nature. A table of degrees comparing increase and decrease in the same or different objects is essential.

The table provides detailed gradations of heat from bodies with no sensible heat to the most intense flames and ignited substances, establishing measurable degrees of heat's presence and effects throughout nature.

The tables reveal poverty in natural history: experimenters are often forced to use traditions and reports instead of approved instances, and to insert notes of uncertainty. The sciences lack sufficient empirical foundation.

After reviewing instances through three tables, induction itself must act. The mind must proceed by negatives first (exclusion), then affirmatives, avoiding hasty phantoms and ill-defined notions that require daily correction.

The first work of legitimate induction is rejection—identifying natures not present when given nature is present, or present when absent, or increasing when given nature decreases. After correct exclusion, affirmative form remains as solid residuum.

Forms should not be confused with concrete forms (like lion, eagle, gold) or abstract ideas, but understood as laws and regulations of simple action arranging and constituting simple natures like heat, light, weight. Forms are not abstract from operative philosophy.

Fourteen specific natures are rejected as components of heat's form through contradictory instances: elementary nature, celestial nature, body variety, substance mixing, flame/light, rarity, expansion of whole, destructive nature, and others.

The exclusive table is not perfected at first, as it depends on good notions of simple natures, which are often vague. More powerful aids for the understanding beyond the three tables of preparation are necessary.

After constructing three tables, the understanding may attempt interpretation affirmatively in a 'first vintage,' a liberty or commencement drawing on both collected instances and others, producing initial provisional definitions.

From collected instances, heat's nature appears as motion, exhibited in flame and boiling liquids. Heat generates motion, and motion arrested generates heat. This constitutes the first approximate definition before refinement through differences.

Heat is refined as expansive motion modified by four differences: (1) it is expansive (dilation), (2) tending upward, (3) operating on small particles with alternating motion, and (4) rapid and never sluggish. These differences limit the genus motion to form heat.

Heat is expansive motion restrained and striving in smaller particles, modified by upward tendency and active effort. The operative definition states that exciting dilating motion in a body and restraining it produces heat, regardless of the body's nature.

After tables of first review, exclusive tables, and first vintage, further aids to understanding and true induction must advance the work. These include prerogative instances, supports of induction, and other methodological devices to be discussed.

Solitary instances exhibit required natures in subjects sharing nothing in common except that nature, or lacking it while otherwise similar. They accelerate exclusion and confirm it, making few instances worth many ordinary ones.

Migrating instances show required natures passing toward generation or corruption. They hasten exclusion and reduce affirmation to narrow compass. Simple migration is most valuable, and they guide practical application while risking false emphasis on efficient cause.

Glass when powdered and water when agitated become white despite being transparent when whole. This migration reveals whiteness results from air and transparent body contact in minute portions, showing form emerges from structural change.

Understanding perversed by efficient causes may wrongly conclude air is necessary for whiteness or that transparent bodies alone produce it. Exclusion properly applied shows the real cause is uneven, simple texture, not air or transparency per se.

Migrating instances include not only generation and corruption but also increase and decrease, which assist form discovery by showing how forms vary with the nature.

Conspicuous instances (coruscations) show required nature in bare substantial shape at full power, free from impediments or overcoming them. They show forms clearly but require care to avoid hasty conclusions and ensure rigorous exclusion.

The thermometer strikingly exhibits expansive motion constituting heat's chief part: evident, progressive, durable, not transitory. Unlike flame or boiling water, it clearly shows air's expansion as the essential form.

Quicksilver is conspicuous for weight because, being liquid yet heavier than solids, it shows weight depends on quantity of matter, not density or compactness. This reveals the form's true nature.

Clandestine or twilight instances show required natures at lowest efficacy, in first rudiments, concealed by contrary natures. They lead to genera (common natures) rather than to differences, and are important for discovering forms.

Water bubbles, threads, drops, and soap bubbles show weak consistency in fluids. This reveals that liquid and consistent are vulgar notions; all bodies tend to avoid discontinuity, stronger in heterogeneous parts due to binding.

An armed magnet sustains much more iron weight than unarmed, revealing hidden cohesion tendency in iron when similarity of substance is present. Wooden arrows penetrate wood similarly, showing latent affinity.

Constitutive instances collect particular groups into common notions, forming lesser forms. While not ultimate forms, they open paths to form discovery and must not lead understanding to premature rest.

Order, artificial memory topics, and verse are constitutive instances that aid memory. They form one lesser species: separation of infinity. Other instances yield other species such as sense-impression connection, passion impression, and temporal impression.

Those without smell or with obstructed nostrils cannot distinguish rancid food, showing taste includes internal smell component. Those with obstructed smell can still perceive salt, sweet, pungent, acid, suggesting taste combines smell and touch.

Similar instances exhibit resemblances and connections of things in the concrete. They are first steps toward nature's union but do not establish axioms directly. They disclose world frame and lead to sublime axioms about world construction.

Mirror and eye, ear formation and echo places show sense organs and reflective bodies are similar, suggesting sensation differs from inanimation by animal spirit addition. Root and branch, tree gums and gems, male and female anatomy exemplify profound resemblances in nature.

Real physical resemblances are substantial, deeply founded in nature, not casual, superficial, or superstitious. Writers on natural magic offer false sympathies and antipathies. Resemblances must be rigorously selected from credible sources.

Singular instances exhibit apparently extravagant, separate natures, agreeing little with others. They serve similarly to clandestine instances by bringing out nature and discovering common forms. Properties of apparent miracles should be reduced to forms.

Deviating instances show nature's errors and monstrous individuals where nature deviates from ordinary course. They differ from singular instances by being individual errors rather than species miracles, and are valuable for practice and producing rare effects.

Bordering instances (participants) exhibit species apparently composed of or rudimentary between two species. They show nature's order and constitution, suggesting causes of species numbers and qualities, and inform understanding of possibility.

Instances of power are noble, perfect works of art, the masterpieces in each art. From these, passage to new works is easier. Excellent works elevate understanding to investigate forms, though care must be taken not to become bewitched or despairing.

Observed masterpieces often depend on little-valued means. Real efficient power comes from discovering forms, not gradual improvement of known arts. Great discoveries come by chance, while form invention imitates chance through systematic inquiry.

The last five instance types (similar, singular, deviating, bordering, power) should be collected at once as particular history to prepare and rectify understanding, not reserved for particular inquiries. They correct understanding's depraved habit from daily impressions.

Accompanying instances show required nature constantly found inseparably with a concrete body; hostile instances show it constantly avoided. These form universal affirmative or negative propositions, narrowing affirmative form to things necessarily comprising it.

Subjunctive or extremity instances are extremes in excess or defect (as gold in weight, diamond in hardness) that indicate real divisions and measures of things, showing nature's limits and passage boundaries.

Alliance instances mingle and unite apparently heterogeneous natures, showing differences are not essential but modifications of common natures. They elevate mind from differences to genera, removing phantom images from disguised concrete substances.

Heat from heavenly bodies, animals, and fire appear different in essence (generative vs. destructive), but a common experiment (grape ripening by fire) shows all heat shares a common nature. Differences lie in degree, moisture, inequality, and time application.

Low comets revolving below heavens show revolution motion is not confined to heavenly bodies alone. This breaks the received classification of natural motion and allows better understanding of motion's nature.

Waterspouts suggest dense bodies can suspend at distance from earth. Animals' reasoning appears in crow behavior. Snow and sulphur flame show original visibility without being light. These instances dissolve false classifications.

Instances of the cross (crucial/judicial) determine which of two competing natures is the cause when understanding is uncertain. One nature's union with the required nature is firm and indissoluble while the other is unsteady and separable. They complete interpretation.

To determine if sea flow and ebb result from progressive or rising motion, observe if floods occur simultaneously at opposite Atlantic coasts and Southern Ocean. Simultaneous floods on opposite coasts rule out progressive motion. The method is decisive.

To determine if magnet's touch communicates polarity to steel or merely excites it (with earth supplying actual motion), place magnetic globe with poles east-west, keep needle over it six days, then remove and test. If needle turns north-south, earth is the cause.

To determine if moon is rare-fiery or solid-dense, seek rare bodies exhibiting reflection, such as flame or clouds. Finding reflection in rare bodies would suggest moon need not be solid. Current evidence slightly favors solidity.

Projectile motion arises from air carrying the body or from body parts pushing themselves forward. A bent reed springing forward shows motion originates at center, not from rear air pressure, supporting the self-motion hypothesis.

Gunpowder's violence comes from conflicting natures (inflammable sulfur and antiflame nitre spirits) rather than mere expansion of flame. Testing highly inflammable substances without the anti-flame element shows expansion alone cannot produce such force.

Flame is generated moment by moment and continuously extinguished, not sustained by same mass. It arises from cause cessation (like light) or from violence from surrounding natures. Pyramid flame shape compresses at sides; enclosed flame in flame continues unextinguished.

Divorce instances show separation of one particular nature from another with which it commonly occurs. They differ from hostile instances and instances of the cross: they expose false forms and dissipate hasty theories without deciding.

Air is rare and mobile but not hot or light. The moon is light but not hot. Boiling water is warm but not light. Compass needle motion is swift but cold, dense, opaque. These divorce instances break false groupings into families.

Five classes of instances called instances of the lamp assist senses and information. Since interpretation begins from senses, abundant and accurate sense ministration enables downstream understanding. These instances strengthen senses, reduce imperceptibles, indicate hidden processes, supply sensory wants, and direct attention.

Instances assisting immediate sensory action, especially sight, include aids to perceive unseen objects, see distant objects, or see distinctly. Microscopes reveal latent minutiae; telescopes show distant heavenly objects; measuring instruments correct and guide sight.

Citing instances reduce to sensory sphere objects escaping senses through distance, obstruction, rarity, quantity, time, power excess, or saturation. Reduction occurs through signs, concomitants, or reduction of imperceptible spirit through effects.

Spirit in tangible bodies escapes observation but appears through effects: weight loss (desiccation), rust formation, hardening, contraction, and organic formation. These effects reduce invisible spirit to sensible phenomena for investigation.

The fundamental natural law is conservation of matter quantity. Different bodies contain different quantities of matter in same space. Density and rarity are relative, calculable by weight proportions and exemplified in substance comparisons.

A table collects weights of metals, minerals, stones, liquids, and other bodies, revealing the limited range of density variation in tangible bodies (about one to twenty-one ratio), demonstrating nature's constraint.

An experiment with spirits of wine evaporated into a bladder reveals aëriform expansion of about one hundred times beyond liquid bulk. This demonstrates dramatic density difference between states and validates investigation of imperceptible bodies.

Mixture composition is revealed through artificial separations showing constituent parts. Imperceptible body texture appears in effect observation. Temperature degrees reveal themselves through thermometer water level changes. Delicate experiments distinguish genuine from adulterated bodies.

Road or itinerant instances indicate nature's gradually continued motions, showing processes in operation rather than only finished products. Seed germination, egg hatching, animal formation, and liquid changes exemplify essential ongoing inquiry.

Supplementary instances supply information when appropriate instances cannot be obtained. Substitution occurs by approximation (finding comparative degrees) or by analogy (considering similar perceptible phenomena). Both require judgment.

Lancing instances warn understanding of nature's exquisite subtlety through marvel-inducing phenomena: tiny ink drops make letters, gold leaf becomes wire, drops color water, perfumes travel distances. They rouse attention to investigation while revealing simultaneity of diverse actions.

While different actions do not impede each other in common media, similar natures subdue and extinguish each other: sun extinguishes candle light, cannon sound drowns voice, strong perfume masks delicate. These limits are important aids to induction.

Seven practical instances address two defects in practice: deception from ill-defined powers, and laboriousness from excessive means or matter. Four mathematical instances measure motion; three benevolent instances direct or lighten practice.

Instances of completion or non ultra measure powers' spatial extent. Some act by contact, others at distance (amber attracting straws, magnetic force). All act within definite distances depending on mass, power vigor, or medium nature, which must be carefully noted.

Experiments on glass eggs, leaden globes, and lever mechanics determine compression and extension limits. Water compresses slightly when pressed violently. Metals admit little compression. Observing these limits in different bodies is essential for practice.

Course or water instances measure motion by temporal moments, as rod instances do by spatial degrees. All natural action occurs in determined times: heavenly returns, tides, ascents, descents, heat effects all happen in measurable periods.

Relative motion measures are more useful than absolute ones. Light travels faster than sound; impression received faster than dismissed (spinning rings appear globular); velocity inequality explains phenomena like tides and mine explosions where smaller mass overcomes larger through motion speed.

Sequential order matters in effects: rhubarb purgative before astringent, violet perfume before earthy scent, first to last in distillation differ. Observing these points is important for understanding complete processes.

Instances of quantity (nature's doses) show how power depends on body quantity. Some powers subsist only in universal quantities; most vary with amount. Exact proportions must be determined experimentally, not assumed.

Wrestling instances show which of competing powers predominates and how. Understanding requires knowledge of nineteen simple primary motions and their interactions: resistance, connection, liberty, matter, continuity, need, greater congregation, lesser congregation, magnetic, avoidance, assimilation, excitement, impression, configuration, transmission, and political motions.

The work exhaustively describes nineteen basic motions: resistance (prevents annihilation), connection (prevents vacuum), liberty (freedom from pressure/tension), matter (change in dimension), continuity (avoiding solution), need (affinity for compatible substances), greater congregation (toward similar masses), lesser congregation (homogeneous parts uniting), magnetic (attraction at distance), avoidance (dispersal from hostile bodies), assimilation (conversion to similar nature), excitement (diffusive power), impression (dependent on agent presence), configuration (desired position), and transmission (power mediation through medium).

Royal or political motion describes governing parts of bodies checking and regulating others. Animal spirits exemplify this; blood and urine decompose when spirit escapes. Understanding this motion is crucial for body transformation.

Spontaneous revolution describes bodies' tendency toward circular motion when placed favorably. It admits nine variations: center, poles, circumference, velocity, direction, spiral deviation at poles, spiral distance variation, and pole movement.

Trepidation is eternal captivity motion: bodies in mean positions constantly tremble, restless and undecided. The heart's pulse exemplifies this, occurring in all bodies between convenience and inconvenience.

Repose is the tendency of dense bodies to avoid motion. Though appearing passive, it is an active motion of recovery toward rest, and in our world, all tangible substance contains spirit from celestial influence.

Different motions have different power: resistance is adamantine; connection's nature uncertain; other motions direct each other by strength, quantity, or assistance received. Wrestling instances must collect rules showing relative predominance and yielding conditions.

Suggesting instances point out what benefits human nature. Bare knowledge and power without enrichment are insufficient. Selection of useful matters from general knowledge is part of science, requiring judicious wish and inquiry.

Generally useful instances relate to various points and frequently occur, sparing considerable labor. Seven principal methods of action on bodies are described: exclusion of impediments, compression and agitation, heat and cold, detention, motion direction, harmony/aversion, and their alternation.

Excluding air and celestial rays through vessel substance, sealing, oil covering, powders, and wax improves operations. Submerging in quicksilver, using caves and wells, and maintaining quantity of bodies all exemplify exclusion for preserving and transforming substances.

Compression and violence produce motion, destroy organic qualities and fine differences, but achieve little in noble body transformations. Permanent condensation might be achieved through persistence or applied helps. Further experiments are needed.

Mankind possesses heat extensively but lacks corresponding cold except from winter, caves, snow. Cold causes condensation shown in nature's processes. Gentle heat produces delicate mixtures better than violent furnace heat. Heat application methods, degrees, and rhythmic variation are crucial.

Continuance (abandonment to time) is nature's steward. Its effects are more delicate than fire's: wine clarifies, ash particles dissolve slowly, and beneficial conformations result without fire's destructive heat. Open or sealed vessels serve different purposes.

Vessel shape and internal configuration direct motion: cones condense vapor, strainers separate substances, curved forms assist refining. This process extends beyond externals into internal body structures, exemplified in casting and modeling.

Harmony between bodies (agreement in substance or form) and aversion (hostility) remain largely obscure until forms are discovered. Universal harmonies include sulphur/oil/flame correspondence and mercury/water/air correspondence. Specific harmonies in medicines and sympathies require cautious investigation.

Alternation of the six preceding methods combines their powers. The sequence or chain of alternation is powerful in operation but difficult to trace. Impatience prevents proper investigation, though this alternation is the clue to all greater works.

Magical instances show small or scanty matter or efficient agent producing grand work or effect. Nature supplies these sparingly. They occur through self-multiplication (fire, poisons), excitement of another substance (magnet, leaven), or velocity excess of one motion over another (gunpowder).

The work concludes by noting the twenty-seven prerogative instances and their respective advantages for theory (aiding senses and understanding) and practice (directing, measuring, elevating). Some require immediate collection; others belong with synoptical tables. These instances are precious souls amid vulgar instance crowds.