Book IV

The introductory passage explains how the Greeks find themselves trapped: the Tigris is impassable, the Carduchian hills block passage, and the generals decide to force a passage through the mountains based on prisoner intelligence about Armenia and the river sources.

The Greeks march at night and reach the mountains at daybreak. Cheirisophus leads the van unopposed to the summit while Xenophon follows with the rear guard, and the army descends to villages in the hollows.

Despite the Greeks' merciful treatment and attempts at negotiation, the Carduchians flee to the mountains and launch a surprise attack on the rear as darkness falls, killing and wounding several Greeks.

At dawn, the generals decide to leave behind weak baggage animals and release all slaves to increase marching speed and reduce supply needs, enforcing these orders through appointed generals at strategic points.

During the next two days, the Greeks are forced to fight continuously with the Carduchians attacking at narrow passes. Xenophon orders the front to slow pace while Cheirisophus sometimes quickens pace, resulting in confusion and the deaths of Cleonymus and Basias.

Xenophon criticizes Cheirisophus for quickening pace and not waiting, forcing the rear guard to fight while fleeing and resulting in lost comrades. Cheirisophus justifies his actions by explaining the need to seize the mountain pass before the enemy occupies it.

Xenophon reports that his men captured two prisoners. After executing the first for claiming ignorance, the second prisoner reveals knowledge of an alternate, passable road with only one difficult col that could be taken in advance.

The generals call for volunteers to take the alternate path and seize the mountain col at night. Several officers volunteer, including Aristonymus, Agasias, Callimachus, and Aristeas, ultimately assembling a force of 2,000 men.

The generals order the 2,000-man party to seize the summit at night and signal at dawn. Simultaneously, Xenophon will advance on the visible pass to distract the enemy, while the main body will rush to support when the signal is given.

As Xenophon's rear guard attempts to force the visible pass to distract the enemy, the Carduchians roll massive boulders down upon them throughout the night, making approach impossible and forcing them to retreat at darkness.

The party with the guide circles around and surprises the enemy guards at their fire, killing some and driving out the rest, taking their position though discovering a higher breast-like hill still lies above them.

At dawn in misty conditions, the flanking party stealthily approaches and charges the enemy in battle order with bugle signal. The enemy flees, suffering few casualties due to their agility and light arms.

Upon hearing the bugle signal, Cheirisophus charges up the main road while other generals find pathless routes, with soldiers helping each other over steep terrain until they unite with the flanking party.

Xenophon follows the flanking party's easier path with the baggage animals, positioning men front and rear. Upon encountering an enemy-held crest blocking the baggage route, he leads a storming assault to dislodge them.

After taking the first ridge and encountering a second, Xenophon leaves three officers in charge of the first ridge to prevent re-occupation while he attacks the second with the rest of his men.

When approaching the third and steepest ridge (the mamelon), the natives unexpectedly abandon it, having realized from their vantage point that they risk encirclement and wanting to attack the Greek rear instead.

Archagoras arrives to report that the three officers left guarding the first ridge have been killed along with others, as the enemy attacked from the rear when the Greeks moved forward.

Xenophon enters into diplomatic negotiations with the Carduchians through an interpreter, securing agreement to return the dead bodies in exchange for not burning their houses.

While negotiations proceed and the main army files past, the local population gathers and launches a surprise assault with boulders, killing one man and crushing another's leg before Xenophon and his men retreat to the main body.

The entire Greek force reunites and takes quarters in numerous beautiful dwellings with ample provisions including abundant wine in cemented cisterns. The generals recover and honor the dead according to custom.

The next day, the Greeks march without a guide as the Carduchians continuously occupy narrow passages. Cheirisophus and Xenophon take turns making flanking detours to relieve obstructed passages and support each other.

The passage describes the Carduchians' superior archery skills, using three-cubit bows and two-cubit arrows that pierce Greek shields and armor. The Greeks adapt by using captured arrows as javelins and employing Cretans as archers.

After seven days of continuous battle in Carduchian territory, the Greeks reach the river Centrites (the frontier between Carduchian and Armenian lands) and bivouac happily, believing their hardships are past.

At dawn the Greeks discover Armenian, Mardian, and Chaldaean cavalry and infantry blocking the far bank, with the river proving too deep to ford safely while holding arms against arrow fire.

The Greeks become deeply despondent, surrounded by dangers on all sides. That night Xenophon dreams his fetters fall away and his legs are freed, which he interprets as a divine omen of crossing the river.

At dawn the generals perform sacrifice and receive favorable omens in the first attempt, leading them to order troops to take breakfast while considering how to cross.

Two young men collecting brushwood for fire discover across the river an old man and women hiding clothes in a rocky cave, realizing this area is safe from cavalry. They strip and cross without swimming, proving the ford is passable.

Xenophon pours a libation and has the young men invoke the gods who sent the vision and the passage, recognizing divine favor guiding the army's fate.

Cheirisophus and Xenophon decide that Cheirisophus will lead the van and cross with half the army, the other half remaining under Xenophon, with baggage and non-combatants crossing in between to overpower the enemy without rear casualties.

Cheirisophus places a wreath on his head, removes his cloak, and orders his troops into open order columns. Soothsayers perform favorable sacrifice while the army sings the paean and battle hymn.

While Cheirisophus crosses, Xenophon races the rear guard back to the alternate crossing point upstream, feinting an encirclement. The enemy cavalry, seeing this movement and Cheirisophus crossing easily, flee toward the mountains in fear.

As Xenophon orders his men to cross, the Carduchians appear in the plain preparing to attack. Xenophon forms a defensive line with sections deployed to meet the threat while others cross behind them.

Xenophon coordinates with support troops sent by Cheirisophus, ordering them to wait at the river with weapons ready. He instructs his own men to wait until the enemy is within sling-shot range, then charge while he signals a withdrawal and rapid crossing.

The Carduchians charge the seemingly small rear guard, but the Greeks raise the paean and charge them. The Carduchians, lightly armed for mountain warfare, cannot withstand close combat and flee as the bugle signals the Greek withdrawal across the river.

After crossing at midday, the Greeks march through an empty Armenian plain for five parasangs, reaching a large village with a satrap's palace. They find plentiful provisions but no evidence of enemy presence in this depopulated region.

The lieutenant-governor Tiribazus proposes a treaty of non-interference: the Greeks will not burn his houses if he refrains from attacking them. The generals accept the terms, and Tiribazus follows at a distance with his forces.

Heavy snow falls while the army camps near a palace with clustered villages. The generals decide to disperse troops throughout the villages for shelter and provisions, though they notice reports of enemy watchfires.

During the night a thick blanket of snow covers the sleeping soldiers. Xenophon gets up without his cloak and begins chopping wood, inspiring others to follow suit and kindle fires to stay warm.

The generals send Democrates to investigate reported watchfires. He returns with a captured Persian messenger who reveals that Tiribazus has assembled an army including Chalybian and Taochian mercenaries to ambush the Greeks at a mountain pass.

Upon learning of the ambush, the generals immediately march against Tiribazus's position. The light infantry advances too quickly and overwhelms his camp, capturing horses, his tent, silver-footed couches, and his household personnel before the heavy infantry arrive.

The Greeks march with all speed and cross the high mountain pass the same day Tiribazus planned to attack them, safely reaching Armenian cantonments before the satrap can reassemble his army.

The Greeks march three desert stages through deep snow toward the Euphrates. A seer suggests sacrifice to Boreas, the north wind, and the sacrifice proves effective as the wind's intensity decreases, though the extreme cold still claims many animals and about thirty men.

During a harsh night in deep snow, soldiers who arrived early and kindled fires prevent latecomers from approaching unless they trade corn or other food, creating a market exchange system at the fire sites.

The next day men collapse from boulimia (hunger-faintness) on the march. Xenophon recognizes the condition and distributes food from the baggage train, reviving the afflicted soldiers who then continue the march.

At dusk Cheirisophus reaches a village and accommodates those able to complete the march, while others lack food and shelter for the night, with some perishing from exposure.

The passage describes how soldiers suffer from snow-blindness, mortified toes from frostbite, and how marching with something black before the eyes and loose sandals at night are the only remedies. Newly-flayed ox-hide brogues freeze to the feet if worn while sleeping.

Some soldiers collapse near a warm spring where snow has melted and refuse to go further despite Xenophon's pleas and warnings about pursuing enemies. They tell him to kill them rather than force them onward.

To prevent the pursuing enemy from attacking the exhausted soldiers, Xenophon's rear guard suddenly charges out at dusk with loud shouts and shield-clanging, terrifying the pursuers who flee into the dell and are never seen again.

Xenophon encounters soldiers sleeping on the snow without guards and forces them to get up and continue. He discovers the entire army ahead is resting in similar fashion, forcing his men to bivouac in the open without fire.

At dawn Xenophon sends the youngest men back to retrieve the sick, who are carried into camp by soldiers from Cheirisophus's division. The reunited army bills regiments throughout villages, drawing lots for locations.

An Athenian captain Polycrates leads active men to Xenophon's allotted village, surprising the villagers, the headman, his newlywed daughter, and seventeen royal tribute horses. The village has underground dwellings with broad chambers containing livestock and stored provisions.

Xenophon treats the headman as a guest at supper, promises to fill his house with goods in return for those taken, and asks him to discover some blessing for the army. The headman willingly reveals the location of buried wine, and they spend the night in comfort with the headman under watch.

The next day Xenophon escorts the headman through the villages, finding Greek soldiers feasting luxuriously with various meats, breads, and wine. The headman collects his relations while Greeks make him gifts at each location.

At Cheirisophus's quarters, the generals feast and interrogate the headman through a Persian-speaking interpreter, learning the country is Armenia, the horses are royal tribute, and the neighboring land belongs to the Chalybes.

Xenophon gives the headman an old horse as a priestly offering to the sun god and selects colts for himself and his fellow officers. The headman teaches them to wrap sacks around animals' feet when marching through snow.

After eight days, Xenophon transfers the headman to Cheirisophus's care, leaving his household behind as hostages except for his son, who is given to Episthenes. The headman guides the army unfettered through the snowy mountains.

When the headman fails to lead them to villages on the third stage, Cheirisophus strikes him in anger but forgets to bind him. The headman escapes in the night, becoming the only point of conflict between Cheirisophus and Xenophon during the march.

After seven stages to the Phasis River and two more stages, the Greeks discover Chalybes, Taochians, and Phasianians blocking the mountain pass ahead. Cheirisophus halts the army and calls a council of war to decide strategy.

Cleanor argues they should breakfast quickly and attack immediately, warning that delay will embolden the enemy who may then receive additional reinforcements.

Xenophon argues against a direct assault, proposing instead to scout and secretly occupy a point on the seven-mile visible mountain to avoid frontal combat. He emphasizes the difficulty of fighting on level ground compared to marching unmolested over terrain.

Xenophon teases Cheirisophus about the Lacedaemonian practice of stealing from boyhood and training in secretiveness, suggesting Cheirisophus display this education by stealing over the mountain without getting caught.

Cheirisophus counters Xenophon's jest by pointing out that Athenians are renowned for stealing public money, often the best men who are worthy of rule, offering Xenophon a parallel opportunity to exhibit his education.

Xenophon offers to take the rear division after supper and seize the mountain chain, reporting he has guides from captured prisoners and intelligence that the mountain is passable for animals and humans.

When Cheirisophus questions why Xenophon should leave his command, Aristonymus and Nicomachus volunteer instead with their troops. They agree to kindle watch-fires upon reaching the heights to signal success.

After supper the chosen party marches to seize the mountain while the main body rests. The enemy, upon seeing the mountain taken, lose sleep and light many watch-fires throughout the night in response.

At dawn Cheirisophus leads the main body up the road while the mountain-holding detachment descends. Both forces coordinate to overwhelm the enemy, with the detachment engaging from the heights while Cheirisophus attacks from the plain.

When the enemy sees their mountain position being beaten back, they flee the main road. The Greeks capture numerous wicker shields, descend into the plain, and sacrifice at the summit to establish a trophy of victory.

The Greeks enter Taochian territory where the inhabitants have withdrawn into a fortress with all their provisions. The army cannot surround it due to a river encirclement, and direct assault on the narrow approach results in stones crushing soldiers.

Xenophon identifies that the stone ammunition is limited and the assault distance is only 150 feet, with the first hundred feet covered by pine trees. He proposes a measured assault that lets the enemy waste ammunition.

Callimachus daringly runs forward from trees and retreats, forcing the enemy to expend massive quantities of stones (more than ten wagon-loads) with each sally. This demonstrates the vulnerability of the enemy's supply.

Seeing Callimachus's success, Agasias charges past him to be first into the fortress. Aristonymus and Eurylochus follow, all three driven by rivalry and desire for honor to be the first to breach the fortress.

Upon the Greeks' entry into the fortress, the Taochian women and men commit suicide by throwing their infants and themselves off the cliffs, with even a rescue attempt by Aeneas resulting in mutual death.

The Greeks march through Chalybis territory for seven stages, finding them the fiercest warriors they've met, wearing distinctive linen cuirasses with cord fringes, greaves, helmets, and carrying long spears. They decapitate captives and carry heads while singing and dancing.

The Chalybes live in fortified townships and continuously harry the Greeks, preventing them from foraging in the land. The Greeks must subsist entirely on flocks and herds taken from the Taochians.

At the prosperous city of Gymnias, the governor provides a guide who promises to show them the sea in five days. However, upon entering hostile territory, the guide's true purpose becomes clear as he urges them to burn and harry the land.

On the fifth day the advance guard reaches Mount Theches and sights the sea, raising a great shout that spreads through the army. Xenophon, hearing the cries, initially suspects an enemy attack but realizes it's a triumphant discovery.

The entire army reaches the summit and embraces with tears of joy. They erect a large cairn with untanned skins, staves, and captured shields. The guide destroys the shields while the Greeks reward him with gifts and rings.

The Greeks march through Macrone territory and encounter the Macrones armed with wicker shields and lances, drawn up to prevent them from crossing the boundary river. The natives shower stones ineffectively into the water.

A former Athenian slave in the Greek army recognizes the Macrone language as his native tongue. He negotiates with them, establishing that the Greeks are not invaders but soldiers returning from war against the king.

After exchanging symbolic lances as pledges, the Macrones help fell trees to construct a road and fraternize with the Greeks. They march with the army for three days, escorting them safely to the Colchian border.

The Greeks encounter the Colchians drawn up on an accessible but prominent mountain chain. The generals initially form a line of battle but then decide to hold a council of war to plan a better approach.

Xenophon proposes forming into columns by companies rather than a line of battle, as lines would disorder on uneven terrain and expose the army to concentrated fire. Columns allow flexibility, mutual support, and force concentration at breakthrough points.

After the council approves the column formation, Xenophon addresses the soldiers, declaring that the Colchians are the only remaining obstacle between them and their hoped-for haven, promising to overcome them.

The Greeks organize approximately eighty companies of heavy infantry (averaging 100 men each) and arrange light infantry in three divisions (about 600 men each), with two flank divisions and one central division.

Before advancing, the generals order a general prayer and offer sacrifice to obtain favorable omens for the assault, with the battle hymn and paean sung as they prepare to engage.

As Cheirisophus and Xenophon advance with light infantry to both flanks, the Colchians attempt to extend their line to maintain contact but overextend, creating a dangerous gap in the center of their formation.

The Arcadian light infantry under Aeschines mistakes the enemy's defensive extension for flight and charges with a shout. They are quickly followed by the Arcadian heavy infantry under Cleanor, both racing to summit before the enemy can rally.

As the Colchians see the Greeks scaling the hill, they abandon their position and flee. The Greeks find numerous villages with abundant provisions, most notably an astonishing number of bee-hives with peculiar intoxicating honey.

The poisoned honey from these regions causes soldiers who eat it to experience intoxication, vomiting, diarrhea, and madness. Small doses cause drunkenness, large ones cause apparent death; most soldiers recover by the third or fourth day.

After two stages covering seven parasangs, the Greeks reach Trapezus, a Greek city on the Black Sea and colony of Sinope. They halt for thirty days using Colchian villages as a base and receive provisions and hospitality from Trapezus.

The Greeks prepare sacrifices to Zeus the Saviour and Heracles to fulfill their vows and give thanks for guidance and safe passage. They gather sufficient cattle and make formal offerings according to their pledges.

The Greeks organize gymnastic competitions on the mountainside, with Dracontius, a Spartan exile, presiding. The games include running races, wrestling, boxing, and the pankration, with significant participation and enthusiasm from soldiers and onlookers.

When asked about preparations, the course president Dracontius simply points to the surrounding ridge, noting the rough ground means harder falls but adequate space. He dismisses concerns about wrestling on difficult terrain.

The games feature a boys' mile race (mostly with captive boys), a long race with over sixty Cretans, wrestling, boxing, and the pankration. There is also dramatic horse racing down steep terrain to the sea with many tumbles and difficult climbs back.

The athletic games create a scene of celebration with loud shouting, laughter, and cheering among soldiers and their female companions, marking the triumphant conclusion of their epic journey to the sea.