Book III

Xenophon describes the catastrophic situation facing the Greek army: their generals have been executed, they are surrounded by hostile territory over a thousand miles from home, with no guides, impassable rivers blocking their route, and no cavalry support. The soldiers are so devastated they cannot sleep or eat.

Xenophon is introduced as an Athenian who came with the expedition at the invitation of his friend Proxenus, not as a soldier or officer, and is now positioned to emerge as a leader.

Xenophon experiences a vivid dream of lightning striking his father's house and setting it ablaze, which he interprets as both a divine sign of hope from Zeus and a symbol of his being trapped in hostile territory.

Upon waking, Xenophon resolves that waiting passively is suicide and immediately acts to rouse officers and propose defensive measures rather than surrender to the Persian king.

Xenophon addresses the officers, arguing that they must actively prepare for battle rather than despair, and that falling into the king's hands means torture and death—the king is known for mutilating his enemies.

Xenophon claims the Greeks have kept their oaths to the gods while the Persians have broken theirs, making the gods their allies; furthermore, Greek soldiers are physically tougher and morally superior to their Persian counterparts.

Xenophon calls for officers to show bravery and leadership, offering himself as an example—willing to either lead or follow depending on their preference, stressing that age is no excuse for inaction.

All the assembled officers except the Boeotian Apollonides call on Xenophon to lead them. Apollonides argues for appealing to the king instead, but Xenophon sharply refutes him with recent evidence of Persian treachery.

Another officer, Agasias, reveals that Apollonides has his ears pierced like a Lydian, proving he is not truly Greek; the officers then banish him from their ranks.

The officers summon all remaining generals and captains—about a hundred total—to meet near midnight at the camp parade ground to discuss their situation.

Hieronymous, the eldest of Proxenus's captains, formally asks Xenophon to repeat to the assembled generals and officers what he has already said to the captains.

Xenophon argues that the Greeks' only hope is to actively resist the Persians rather than surrender, as the soldiers are watching their leaders and will gain confidence if the commanders demonstrate preparedness and determination.

Xenophon claims that victory in war depends on courage and morale rather than numbers, and that soldiers who paradoxically risk death nobly tend to survive more often than cowards who seek to preserve their lives at all costs.

Xenophon urges the commanders to set an example of bravery and stimulate the soldiers through their own conduct, emphasizing that this is the critical moment to show courage.

Cheirisophus, the Lacedaemonian commander, praises Xenophon's words and character, then takes charge by ordering officers to immediately elect new generals and organize a general assembly of all soldiers.

Five new generals are chosen to replace those who were killed: Timasion (Dardanian), Xanthicles (Achaean), Cleanor (Arcadian), Philesius (Achaean), and Xenophon (Athenian) to succeed Proxenus.

Cheirisophus speaks to the assembled troops, urging them to overcome their circumstances through bravery, to seek glorious victory if possible, or at least glorious death rather than falling into enemy hands.

Cleanor recounts the king's and Tissaphernes's betrayal of oaths, their violation of guest-friendship, and their disrespect for the gods, calling on the Greeks to commit fully to battle rather than be deceived again.

Xenophon tells the soldiers that since the Greeks have kept their oaths while Persians have broken theirs, the gods will favor the Greeks; he proposes vows of sacrifice and a battle hymn.

Xenophon invokes the example of Greek ancestors who defeated vastly larger Persian forces at Marathon and during the wars with Xerxes, claiming that courage and freedom are the Greeks' heritage.

Xenophon reminds the soldiers that they have already defeated these Persians in battle, so they should have no fear now, and that losing Cyrus's allied troops is actually an advantage since those troops are cowards anyway.

Xenophon refutes soldiers' concerns about lacking cavalry and losing Tissaphernes as a guide, arguing that ten thousand men on foot are equal to ten thousand cavalry, and that forced conquest of supplies is better than buying scarce provisions.

Xenophon dismisses fears about impassable rivers and offers examples of other peoples (Mysians, Pisidians) who live defiantly in the king's territory without permission, suggesting the Greeks could do likewise or find river crossings.

Xenophon argues that the Greeks should return home to demonstrate that poverty in Greece is a choice, not necessity, and emphasizes that all wealth in this territory belongs to whoever has the strength to possess it.

Xenophon recommends burning wagons and tents to increase mobility and allow more soldiers to remain armed, freeing the army from dependence on baggage trains.

Xenophon argues that since the enemy relied on eliminating generals to sow confusion, the Greeks must ensure officers are more vigilant and soldiers more obedient than before, with all bystanders duty-bound to help officers maintain discipline.

Cheirisophus calls for an immediate vote on all of Xenophon's proposals; they are unanimously approved by the soldiers raising their hands.

Xenophon proposes marching in a hollow square to protect the baggage and non-combatants, assigns Cheirisophus to the vanguard and himself to the rear guard with Timasion, and proposes the two eldest generals command the flanks.

Xenophon concludes by urging soldiers to remember their goals—seeing friends again, surviving, or acquiring wealth—and that all these depend on achieving victory through military conquest.

The Greeks burn their wagons and tents, share out supplies among themselves, eat breakfast, and prepare for the march ahead.

Mithridates appears claiming to be a friend and offering to join the Greeks, but when the generals explain their plan to march home and resist if hindered, Mithridates reveals his true allegiance by arguing their only hope is the king's permission.

Mithridates attacks the Greek rearguard with archers and slingers while the Greeks march; though initially outranged, the Greeks charge and force the enemy to retreat, but Xenophon's aggressive pursuit is criticized by other generals.

Xenophon analyzes the tactical problem revealed by the skirmish: the Greeks lack the range to effectively counter Persian archers and slingers, so he proposes recruiting Rhodian slingers and forming mounted cavalry from horses in the army.

The proposals are approved and within one day two hundred slingers are recruited; by the next day fifty cavalry riders are formed, equipped, and placed under the command of Lycius the Athenian.

Mithridates, now commanding a thousand cavalry and four thousand infantry given by Tissaphernes, attacks again but is forced to retreat when the Greeks' new cavalry and Rhodian slingers outmatch his forces; the Greeks mutilate fallen enemies to inspire fear.

The Greeks cross the Tigris river and pass through the ruins of two ancient Median cities—Larissa and Mespila—whose massive walls and history provide geographical context and inspiration from past empires.

The Greeks find that marching in a hollow square creates confusion at narrow passages and bridges; they solve this by creating six smaller tactical units (lochi) that can regroup efficiently when terrain narrows or expands.

When Tissaphernes positions troops on high ground to rain down projectiles on the Greek army, Xenophon coordinates a maneuver to outflank the enemy by sending light infantry to the summit; this forces Tissaphernes to retreat and establishes the Greeks' tactical superiority.

With many wounded and combat-ineffective soldiers, the Greeks discover they are more effective defending from a fortified camp against persistent Persian attack than trying to march and fight simultaneously.

The Greeks learn that Persians avoid night operations because their cavalry requires complex preparation (saddling, bridling, armoring), so the Greeks force an evening engagement and then march through the night to increase their distance.

By marching seven and a half miles after the enemy withdraws, the Greeks create enough distance that the Persians do not reappear for four days; when they finally do, Xenophon's tactical intervention secures a mountain pass.

When Persians occupy a mountain crest blocking the Greek path, Xenophon identifies a parallel route up the mountain and leads a detachment in a dramatic uphill race that reaches the summit first, forcing the Persians to flee.

During the mountain race, when soldier Soteridas complains that Xenophon has an unfair advantage on horseback, Xenophon immediately dismounts, takes Soteridas's shield, and carries it himself while continuing to lead the men—an act of humbling leadership that shames and motivates the soldiers.

After losing control of the mountain pass, Tissaphernes and his cavalry withdraw by an alternate route, and the Greeks occupy villages in the plain, effectively breaking Persian pressure.

When Tissaphernes burns villages to deprive the Greeks of provisions, Cheirisophus argues for burning villages themselves to hasten the enemy's retreat; Xenophon proposes an active defense, but the disagreement is not fully resolved.

The Greeks encounter a deep river with impossibly high mountains on one side and enemy cavalry on the other. A Rhodian proposes an ingenious inflated skin bridge, but it is impractical because the Persians control the far bank.

Unable to cross the river, the Greeks turn back toward unburnt villages and interrogate prisoners about available routes, learning of the mountainous path through Carduchian territory as their best option northward.

After analyzing all possible routes, the Greeks decide that passage through the independent Carduchian mountains, though dangerous, offers the best path to Armenia and eventual safety; they make this strategic decision official through sacrifice and vows.